The Birth of Islam: A Brief History

Introduction:

Islam, being one of the three major Abrahamic faiths, bears many similarities to Christianity and Judaism. All trace their religious origins to Adam and Eve. Islam, too, holds the Old Testament sacred. Muslims don't, however, view Jesus with the same godly light. Further, Muhammad is considered the last messenger of God and the "living embodiment of Qur'anic teaching" (Mandaville 2014, 25). Islam and the teachings of Muhammad were born and propagated when peace, unity, and a sense of belonging were desperately needed. The year was 622 A.D., and it was a time of significant turbulence, empire collapse, and tribal wars. In the Arabian peninsula, before Islam, "religion was not so much a source of moral guidance as it was a way to seek control over the natural world for profit and personal gain" (Ibid., 26).

Early Life and Influences:

Muhammad's childhood was filled with unusual experiences and circumstances. He was orphaned at a young age, left to be raised by his uncle in the busy, and to a large degree commercial, city of Mecca. Muhammad was born into a society that placed great value on tribe and family. Having been orphaned, he felt the painful sting of being labeled an outcast to society and the loneliness and suffering that came with it. But having no parents also meant he was a "child of everybody" (Islam Empire of Faith 2000, 6:25). His uncle taught him the family trade, and Muhammad worked hard to earn a successful reputation within the city. These early experiences imprinted on him a passionate concern for the other and sculpted him into the man he would become: a merciful man with compassion for the "other" and a strong disdain for the overly materialistic lifestyle.

Calling:

However, it wasn't until around 40 years of age that Muhammad experienced his religious calling. He found the chaotic, bustling, materialistic life in Mecca to be alienating. It caused him inner frustration and conflict, and he would often hike outside the city limits for some solitude and peace. During one such hike on the outskirts of Mecca, he spoke of a message from God. As Mandaville explained it, "the archangel Gabriel appeared to Muhammad and informed him of his prophetic calling" (2014, 25). It was a message that would shift paradigms and work to curtail polytheism and the desire for the materialistic. It also set the stage for unity in worship and the worship of one and only one God. These changed ideals would launch a new social movement, forging new politics and reshaping humanity forever.

Hostilities and Near Defeat:

But these new and revolutionary ideals didn't take root immediately. Muhammad and his teachings were initially met with much resistance and suspicion. The people were not ready to leave their deities and paths to personal gain. Muhammad's ways were quite uncomfortable and, in many ways, dangerous to the status quo. It was this fear of change that created so much resistance. Muhammad's teachings were nearly defeated.

Caravan to Medina:

But while Muhammad's vision was initially met with such resistance and hostility, an invitation to an oasis city, full of political instability and desperate for peace (Yathrib, later renamed Medina), came at the opportune time. It was this invitation, which sparked a pivotal caravan journey and shifted the dynamics of the opposition. A hijra bound for the first time not by blood but by belief and a new social order would mark the true beginning of Islam (Islam Empire of Faith 2000, 30:15). 

The Spread of Islam:

In his acceptance of the challenge to bring renewed stability and peace to Medina, Muhammad became a political figure and was recognized as the Prophet in return. That shifted the political and social dynamics and allowed Muhammad more opportunity to form alliances within tribal communities. As Muhammad's alliances and power grew, Medina and Mecca battled out their differences. As Mandaville explained, "One after another, the tribal leaders of Arabia swore oaths of allegiance to Muhammad over the next two years. By the time of the Prophet's death in 632, he had managed to bring all of central Arabia under his effective control" (2014, 28). With its revolutionary ideals, Islam was cemented by merciful conquer, respect for the existing structure, and the sense of unity and belonging created by praying together, and it flourished.

The Death of Muhammad:

Because Muhammad was the political leader of the Muslim community and the interpreter of the word of God, a successor had to be appointed following his death to stabilize and protect not only the unity of Islam but also the political and social order in the community (Daftary 2013, 25). However, this proved not an easy task, as much debate, division, and disagreement grew over who the rightful successor should be.

Bakr Versus Ali:

Much disagreement surfaced concerning political succession. Bloodline was favored on one side, specifically, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib. The other side believed the most qualified and one appointed by the Muslim community should lead. This side was in favor of Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, and oldest companion. Because Ali was not highly ranked within the tribal system, it was the latter (and larger) group that prevailed (Blanchard 2005, 1), paving the way for Abu Bakr to become the first caliph. But the divide and disagreement were far from over.

Murder and Suspicion:

While Abu Bakr became the majority chosen successor and political leader to Muhammad, the chaos and complexity deepened. Abu Bakr died of fever, and Umar ibn al-Khattab became the second caliph. But violence would ensue, and Umar was murdered, stabbed in the stomach by a slave. Uthman ibn Affan would follow as the third caliph. He, too, met a violent end and was murdered; beaten to death while in his study (CaspianReport 2015, 00:35). It was during Uthman's time as caliph that division among followers began to escalate.

Ali Becomes Caliph:

Grievances over Uthman's social and economic policies widened, while at the same time, Ali began to revive old aspirations, and a growing voice for Uthman's removal began to sound (Daftary 2013, 30). So, when Uthman was murdered, and Ali became the fourth caliph, he was met with much suspicion, and civil war boiled to the surface. To complicate matters, a new group had formed, the Khawarij ("the ones who left"), and they created much internal conspiracy and conflict. Though not known at the time, not only were they involved with the rebellion and assignation of Uthman, they were involved in nearly every conflict of the time. It was at the hands of the Khawarij that Ali was murdered in 661 A.D. while praying. He died not by the blade they stabbed him with, but by the poison, it had been dipped in. It should be noted that these Khawarij also laid the foundation for the beginnings of radical Islam (CaspianReport 2015, 14:35-20:02). These events set the stage for Hussein, son of Ali, to take his father's place and become the new Shiite protagonist to lead his followers forward. But the road was wrought with conflict.

Hussein and the Battle of Karbala:

Mu'awiya, governor of Syria and challenger to Ali, soon drowned all hope of succession and power falling to Ali's bloodline when he named his son, Yazid, as successor (Mandaville 2014, 32). Hussein, believing succession belonged to the bloodline, rejected Yazid's authority and led them into the Battle of Karbala. It was there that Hussein and all 72 of his companions were slaughtered. The opposition abandoned his body on the battlefield and carried his decapitated head as a tribute to the caliph in Damascus ("The Origins Of The Shiite-Sunni Split" n.d.). According to Mandaville, "The martyrdom of Ali's son Hussain at the Battle of Kerbala in 680, an event commemorated by Shi'a each year on the Day of Ashura (the tenth of Muharram), is generally recognized as the event that crystallized a sense of dispossession among those whose political loyalties lay with the Prophet's family" (2014, 39). And so, the Shia-Sunni split carved itself in history, creating a divide that would haunt the world for millennia to come.

Islam and the Sunni–Shia Split Today:

Today, roughly 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni, 15% are Shia, and there's a competition for leadership of the Muslim world ("The Sunni-Shia Divide" n.d.); nothing short of political power, social prowess, financial stability and oil wealth. These will determine Muslim political society and their position among world leaders in the international arena. The term "Muslim political society" refers to the construct or fabric of authority in which both the political and religious are interwoven. It includes the caliph, religious scholars, and the laws that bind the state and society (Mandaville 2014, 34). There is often no absolute separation between Islam and state, a very different structure from what we experience in the West. These competing forces also have the potential to alter the global political landscape as we know it. As the Council on Foreign Relations explained, "Struggles between Sunni and Shia forces have fed a Syrian civil war that threatens to transform the map of the Middle East, spurred violence that is fracturing Iraq, and widened fissures in a number of tense Gulf countries" ("The Sunni-Shia Divide" n.d.). What the future holds is anyone's guess. But Islam, its ancient Sunni-Shia divide, and the power dynamics at play are sure to keep the world's attention. 

References:

Daftary, Farhad. 2013. History of Shi'i Islam. A. London, U.S.: I.B. Taurus.

Blanchard, Christopher M. 2005. Islam: Sunnis and Shiites. Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division, Congressional Research Service Report. 

CaspianReport. n.d. History of Islam, Part 4 of 5: Partisans of Ali. Accessed October 15, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SAfUGTk55ME.

Islam Empire of Faith Part 1 Prophet Muhammad and Rise of Islam Full PBS Documentary. Accessed October 1, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PF6VPZsHDZQ.

Mandaville, Peter. 2014. Global Political Islam. Taylor & Francis Group. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=180965.

“The Origins Of The Shiite-Sunni Split.”n.d. NPR.Org. Accessed October 8, 2018. https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2007/02/12/7332087/the-origins-of-the-shiite-sunni-split.

“The Sunni-Shia Divide.”n.d. Accessed October 8, 2018. https://www.cfr.org/sunnishia.