Muhammad’s Influence on Islam

Introduction:

The life of Muhammad, including his early life experiences and lack of indisputable succession appointment, has had a profound impact on the development of Islam, both during the time of the Prophet and in the present-day Islamic world. The environment Muhammad grew up in heavily influenced his worldview and, in turn, helped sculpt the development of Islam. His emphasis on monotheistic worship contrasted the largely polytheistic tribal society that rejected him. Being an outcast himself as an orphan in a society that placed a high value on family and tribe created empathy in Muhammad toward women, the poor, and the underprivileged. Further, regional conflict and unrest worked to shape how Islam gained its hold and expanded, with both religious and political intentions, a key event being the hijra to Yathrib and Muhammad's leadership role there. 

But lack of clarity in how Muhammad's messages from God might be applied to future scenarios and the failure to define his successor clearly and how succession should unfold in the future created many conflicts, disagreement, and confusion. It birthed the Sunni/Shia split and other sub-factions and created conflicting views on matters concerning Islamic law, jihad, and Islam's compatibility with modern-Western structure, democracy, and secular government. 

Early Environmental Influences:

Key moments of early influence in Muhammad's life, leading up to the birth of Islam, were largely environmental. Muhammad was born into a Meccan society consisting primarily of Pagan, multi-idol worship, under the rule of the Quraysh tribe, to which Muhammad, too, belonged. The sacred Kaaba housed the statues of hundreds of Pagan gods and goddesses. Women were not valued in social society; they were treated much like property, and it was common practice to bury female infants alive rather than take on the "burden" of raising them. Muhammad was orphaned at a young age in this tribal society which placed enormous value on family and tribal hierarchy. While he was adopted and raised by an uncle, Muhammad nonetheless understood the pain of being cast out by the community. No doubt, these experiences sculpted the man Muhammad became and colored his worldview. 

As a young man, Muhammad was known for his kindness, integrity, and trustworthiness. It was this reputation that drew the attention of Khadija, a successful businesswoman, and Muhammad's future wife, and launched him into his career as a merchant in the newly bustling commercial city of Mecca (Brown 2017). But the chaotic and materialistic environment of the merchant life proved at times too much, and Muhammad would often journey to the quiet escape of the mountainside at the outskirts of Mecca to recharge. On one such journey, God's message was delivered to him through the angel Gabriel, marking Muhammad as the last Prophet and the messenger of God, the one and only God. And so, Muhammad returned and began to preach this message of one and only one God. As Esposito (2011) explained, the majority of his fellow Meccans, with their subscribed "tribal polytheism," were living ignorant lives, absent of "the one true God and His will as revealed to the prophets Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus." That marked the beginning of the pivot from polytheistic worship to a monotheistic framework.

Muhammad's struggles as an orphan were ingredients in his kind and honest demeanor, and along with the emphasis of one God and a shift away from idolatry, so too came an emphasis on kindness, as seen in Surah 90:12-19, which describes the right path as freeing slaves, feeding orphans, the poor, and the hungry, and living life with compassion (Haleem 2004). But Muhammad's experiences as an outcast did not end with childhood. His messages and push for change were met with hostility by the Meccan leadership, fearing loss of status and power in society. Muhammad and his followers were demonized and nearly defeated by the powers in play. But a glimmer of hope soon emerged on the horizon, away in the oasis city of Yathrib. Here was a city in turmoil, in great need of change and leadership. 

It was an invitation from Yathrib which changed the tides for Muhammad and his followers. As Lewis (2009) described, "In his new home, Muhammad was welcomed not just as a prophet and teacher but also as a ruler, and it was there that he created the first Islamic state, with himself as its sovereign head." There were, of course, a great many future successes and defeats, but this hijra to Yathrib then renamed Medina marked an escape from extinction––the true beginning of Islam and the start of the Muslim calendar. Religion and political might had merged. Some eight years after Muhammad left Mecca "as a fugitive," he returned victoriously, and the Quraysh surrendered (Brown 2017).

A Revolution:

In many ways, Islam can be viewed as a revolution. The Prophet Muhammad served as a challenge to the status quo and old tribal leadership; a restructure to the Meccan order (Lewis 2009). Muhammad's success and that of Islam could be described as "not just a religion in the limited, modern Western sense of that word, but rather in Islamic terms, that is, a new political, social, and cultural order, differing in many significant aspects from the old" (Lewis 2009). Yes, it was a revolution! But the struggle didn't end there.

Muhammad's death came in the year 632 after addressing his followers on the importance of maintaining unity. He died not in battle, but at home in the company of his wife, after battling a brief illness (Brown 2017). Muhammad, in life, served as a source of immediate answers, and his death marked a traumatic end to his living guidance and the "direct revelation from God" (Esposito 2011). Some say that Muhammad named his cousin Ali as his rightful successor, but if he did, this instruction was not made clear beyond a doubt to his followers at large. His death brought with it a deep chasm of disagreement concerning who should succeed him. Around 15% sided with bloodline and believed succession should journey along the path of male descendants, while the overwhelming majority, about 85%, felt his successor should be based on qualifications over blood, someone elected by the community, and chose Abū Bakr (Esposito 2011). This discrepancy birthed the Shia/Sunni split we are still witnessing today. 

Division and Uncertainties:

But the split into the two primary sects within Islam runs deeper than that of succession alone. It also marks division over leadership roles and who can determine Islamic law or sharia. Further, Muhammad's message, carried on orally until sometime after his death when it was eventually compiled and written down, thus giving us the Qur'an; lacked clear instruction for how future, and modern-day, Islamic societies should operate while remaining in the good graces of God and Islam. The reliance on oral records until well after Muhammad's death also spawned uncertainties in record accuracy and authenticity (Lewis 2009). These bouts of debate opened up a whole new gorge of division and disagreement within the Islamic world.

As time moved on and the international arena changed, Muslim jurists began to dispute how Islamic law should be applied elsewhere, outside the Islamic world. Again, there was no clear-cut answer to be found in the messages of Muhammad and the Qur'an, and much debate emerged. If a Muslim ventures outside the Islamic world and into the lands of nonbelievers, what should happen if he/she commits a crime? Should there be different expectations if the Muslim in the foreign land is thereby choice versus by force? What role should jurisdiction play? (Lewis 2009) Something as simple as the permissibility of coffee birthed argument, and in turn, sculpted Islamic law. Brown (2017) explained, "When the jurists of Mecca were faced with a new behavior or custom, they immediately knew their duty, and that duty was to determine, as best they could, God's estimation of that behavior." The only tools they had at their disposal to determine God's stance on such questions was the word of God, manifested in the Qur'an, and examples of the Prophet, known as the Sunna (Brown 2017). 

All of these factors have shaped and influenced the Islam we see in the present day. The division between Sunni and Shia is broader than political dogma, with law disputes and vastly different worldviews. The differing experiences between Sunni and Shia have manifested in differing customs and laws. One such example can be found in marriage where Shia allow auto-dissolving contract marriages or mut'a, and Sunni does not. Another is seen in the Shia, but not Sunni, the permissibility of concealing one's beliefs in certain circumstances (Lewis 2009). That permissibility can be attributed to the vastly different experiences and worldviews between Sunni and Shia. Historically, Sunni has been the majority and has largely ruled over the Shia, giving Sunni a worldview based on power, success, and the glories of a "golden age." On the other hand, Shia experienced history as the suppressed minority, instilling feelings of struggle, hardship, and oppression (Esposito 2011). 

The uncertainties, disputes, questions, and divides extend to the modern day. Islam teaches that suicide is forbidden and will result in a fiery punishment in the afterlife. Dying while fighting jihad leads to martyrdom and peaceful life in paradise. But what of the suicide bombers of today? What fate will they meet in the hereafter? Clearly, they must believe their actions will be rewarded rather than punished. Further, who constitutes the enemy for which jihad might be raised? Perspective is everything.

Uncertainty and dispute within the Muslim community on how Islam should or should not embrace modern-day issues and the West abound. Ayatollah Khomeini issued a death sentence fatwa in 1989 against Salman Rushdie, a novelist based in London, for publishing a book against Islam. This fatwa was significant because it was also extended to include all people associated with the book's publication, meaning many non-Muslims claimed jurisdiction in non-Muslim countries (Lewis 2009). In Germany, a judge refused to allow a divorce requested by a Muslim woman who was being physically abused by her husband because, although physical abuse is against German law, it is allowed under Shari'a law (Lewis 2009). Where is the line drawn?

An old Muslim saying prescribes that forbidding what God allows is just as bad as permitting the forbidden. In this light, very strict Shari'a interpretation could come up against strong barriers to modernization, particularly in such cases regarding slaves and women's rights. That has been the struggle for Muslim reformers trying to surmount these challenges while striking a balance and maintaining a faithful and respectful position with Shari'a (Lewis 2009). Esposito (2011) examines the differing viewpoints between secular Muslim activists and Islamic activists, and conflicts largely rest in opposing views concerning functionality and separation between mosque and state. That can be problematic. However, it is also essential to look to example outcomes such as those seen in other parts of the Muslim and non-Muslim world where modernization has been successful without complete secularization or Westernization. Further, we can find Islamic fundamentalists graduating in STEM from top modern universities (Esposito 2011). 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the personal experiences that shaped Muhammad's worldview and the clarity, or lack thereof, of his messages largely impacted the development of Islam, both during the time of the Prophet and present-day. These impacting factors were Muhammad's birth during a time of conflict and polytheism, being orphaned at a young age, messages not conducive to clear future application, and lack of concrete succession instruction. Had the environment or circumstances during Muhammad's early life been different, or had his messages or succession instruction been clearer for future application, the Islam of modern-day would likely look drastically different.

Works Cited:

Brown, Daniel W. (2017). A New Introduction to Islam. John Wiley and Sons. 3rdEdition.

Esposito, John L. (2011). What everyone needs to know about Islam (2nd Ed.). New York, NY. Oxford University Press.

Haleem, A. M. A. S. (2004) The Qur’an: A New Translation. New York, N.Y., Oxford UniversityPress, Inc.

Lewis, Bernard Ellis. (2009). Islam: The Religion and the People. Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.