Empowering Ugandan Women to Combat Water Insecurity

INTRODUCTION:

Water insecurity in Uganda is an often-overlooked issue affecting the everyday lives of its citizenry. In particular, Ugandan women are disproportionately impacted by water insecurity as the primary household member responsible for most of the water-related duties. However, investments in women’s empowerment through rainwater harvesting and water-related education can help combat water insecurity at the household level and strengthen the community at the same time. 

Uganda faces an uncertain future with climate change and growing political tension. Investments in women to improve water challenges will help not only Ugandan women, but also their families, communities, and the state. Additionally, it can serve as a framework for future international response to this vital aspect of human security, not only for Uganda but other states in need.

BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM:

Conflict and violence are often contributors to disrupted supply chains and water supply, access, and usage challenges. Since independence, Uganda has endured multiple periods of unrest. Although Uganda is currently more stable than in the past, its future stability remains uncertain. Part of Uganda’s uncertainty surrounds a rapidly growing population estimated to surpass 80 million by the year 2040, coupled with a dramatic influx of more than 1.4 million refugees fleeing conflict from neighboring states (Runde 2018). Such population increases will surely exacerbate Uganda’s existing water scarcity challenges. This paper investigates water insecurity-related issues in Uganda, its complicating challenges, and recommends one possible way to take a positive step toward a solution.

ISSUES:

Uganda is home to a variety of human security-based challenges, each with its unique impact. Most of these challenges are multi-faceted and contribute to a host of other problems. Gleick and Iceland highlight three pathways that significantly contribute to water insecurity: water supply decline, heightened water demand, and natural disasters, such as flooding (2018, 2). In the wake of political instability, an exploding population, and mass migrations, "51 percent of Ugandans lack access to safe water" (Water.org 2020) and sanitation facilities. Once built to combat water-access issues, many water systems are old and too expensive to maintain (McDonnell 2019). Now, COVID-19 adds further stress to the region. Unfortunately, climate change will also bring future natural disasters. 

Sadly, Ugandan women are more likely to feel the acute effects of water insecurity due to gender roles and expectations. Women are primarily responsible for household water supply, access, and usage (Cooper-Vince et al. 2018, 2). Further, women are the agricultural workforce's primary laborers, a significant sector dependent on water supplies (Tsai et al. 2016, 289). The unequal placement of water-related responsibilities on women leads to a greater rate of depression and anxiety compared to Ugandan men (Cooper-Vince et al. 2018, 1). In a study on depression in Uganda, 38 percent of women had probable depression compared to only 17 percent of men, and living in a "water insecurity hotspot" correlated with a 70 percent higher risk of depression in women (Cooper-Vince et al. 2018, 4-5). That is not surprising because water insecurity would make it very difficult for women to maintain their roles and effectively contribute to the household successfully.

COMPLICATING ISSUES & ANALYSIS:

At the Household-level, women face time constraints from daily workloads and a lack of education regarding water-related technologies and sanitation practices. Lack of knowledge about sanitation best practices is a likely contributor to household usage failure (Web 2006, 21). Further, to avoid significant risk to a household, each member must have access to at least 15-20 liters of safe water daily (Web 2006, 29). That puts an even greater burden on women, who, as a result, often collect dirty water from closer sources to save time. Such practices put the entire household at risk as unsafe drinking water can lead to significant viral and bacterial infections, on top of the current COVID-19 pandemic.

Women are expected to manage water collection, water-related domestic chores, and gardening and irrigation needs (Web 2006, 30). Such a workload leaves little time to learn about new technologies or best practices to use accessible water efficiently. Water collection itself is the costliest in terms of time management, so any effort to make water more accessible would help free up time for usage education and training. Web highlights that "village-based stand-pipes or pumps can increase water usage four-fold simply by reducing the time required to obtain water" (Web 2006, 30-31). Household-level accessible water sources would, therefore, reduce collection time even further.

Women are at the forefront of water-related challenges in Uganda at the household level. They suffer higher rates of depression and suicide than their male counterparts, which can directly impact the household's overall health and well-being and the community. Yet, they are systematically left out of the process when it comes to training and education. It makes sense to include them in future solutions as doing so will build a more solid foundation for any water-related endeavor's success. The inclusion of women is also likely to decrease feelings of inadequacy and the "social shaming, worry and a negative self-concept" that too often leads to self-harm (Cooper-Vince et al. 2018, 6).

At the community level, global warming will exacerbate water instability through increased droughts, floods, and migration patterns in Ugandan communities, directly impacting water security. Further, a community's water supply isn't affected by climate-induced disasters like droughts and floods alone, but also by the "community's governance capacity and resilience" in the face of such natural disasters (Gleick and Iceland 2018, 1). Many communities are already stretched too thin or are rotten with conflict and corruption.

These weather shifts can exacerbate not only the community-level water supply directly, but it can also have a significant impact on supply chains and water distribution. Uganda's Commissioner of Disaster Preparedness highlighted that "in Uganda climate-related disasters such as drought and floods…contribute [to] over 70% of natural disasters and destroy an annual acreage of 800,000 hectares of crops, making economic losses in excess of [roughly US $69 million]" (Web 2006, 32). Economic "shock" and supply-chain disruption can also hike up the cost of water, forcing many more impoverished communities to forgo purchasing needed water supplies (Web 2006, 20). 

A weakened economy would exacerbate shortages of emergency resources for poorer communities experiencing climate crises and make it more challenging to adequately deal with the water demands in communities experiencing growth or housing refugees. Further, it could contribute to existing conflict within the community over water access and birth new conflict. Unfortunately, human-induced climate change is already happening, and weather stability is expected to deteriorate further, inching closer to a "Day Zero" event when water supplies run completely dry (McDonnell 2019). 

At the state level, politics play an important role in the future of water challenges in Uganda. Violent conflict has been no stranger to Uganda since its 1962 independence, and this instability has significantly impacted the state's economy and infrastructure development (Staddon et al. 2018, 1115). While improvements have been made to water sanitation infrastructure in more recent years, it does not equate to clean water access for all. That is especially true for more impoverished remote communities. Sadly, "86 percent of the Ugandan population depends on 'other improved' or 'unimproved' sources, which may include local surface water sources, hand-dug shallow wells or groundwater collection schemes" (Staddon et al. 2018, 1115). The state must do more to solve the water crisis.

Yet, future political instability could very well be on the horizon. Uganda's President Museveni appears more and more unlikely to transfer power and step down, even changing the state's constitution in his favor by removing its presidential age limit (Runde 2018). In turn, Uganda's youth took to the streets in protest, fueling the likelihood of future unrest and the potential of Museveni being removed from office by force (Runde 2018). If the president counters with force against the protestors, political instability will grow. If he is removed from office by force, instability would also evolve, and it is uncertain what kind of government would take his place. Regardless, it is challenging for any state to maintain its water needs during such unrest, especially in a state already struggling with water insecurity.

Further, water insecurity itself could exacerbate political instability. Gleick and Iceland point out that "Political instability and conflicts are rarely caused by any single factor, such as a water crisis. Instead, water crises should be seen as contributing factors to instability" (Gleick and Iceland 2018, 1). From a state-level political perspective, Uganda appears to have an uncertain future ahead, which will undoubtedly complicate its citizens' water needs.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS:

Direct rainwater harvesting combined with women’s water sanitation and usage education is one option to improve water insecurity at the household level. Rainwater harvesting would dramatically reduce the time women spent on water collection, freeing up more time for water-related technology and best-practices training. NGOs, local women’s groups, and faith-based groups have the potential to be valuable support, investment, and implementation investors. However, Staddon et al. underscore that “the way these organizations operate, the communities they work with and the ways they implement the technology are all crucial in determining adoption trends” (2018, 1130). Care must be taken to establish trust within each household to ensure a truly successful outcome.

Community-level water recycling and sharing programs are additional options. Web points to Egypt’s recycled water use, first in urban areas followed by hydroelectrical and agricultural use (2006, 24). Something similar could prove valuable for Uganda as well. However, significant structural changes would be required to implement such a system. The cost would be an extreme burden to Uganda, and the incentives relatively low for foreign investors (Web 2006, 24). But other less expensive means would certainly benefit Ugandan communities and households. Cooper-Vince et al. highlighted a study on food insecurity that found depression was less pronounced where community sharing of resources took place (2018, 2). That would surely apply to water insecurity as well and help combat depression in women. NGOs or U.S. investment would be the best targets to support community-level initiatives.

Investment in flood-resistant infrastructure and drought-resistant crops is another area for consideration. Climate change will cause increased flooding and drought. Flooding and drought are estimated to cause crises in more than 4 billion lives per year by 2050 (Web 2006, 33). The cost of climate-resistant infrastructure and crops made to withstand such conditions pales in comparison to the cost of losses incurred by not doing so (Web 2006, 33). Such integrated structural changes would best be implemented in partnership between the United Nations and the Ugandan government.

RECOMMENDATION:

Although the impact of water insecurity on Ugandan women is exacerbated by household expectations, climate change, and an uncertain political future, rainwater harvesting and increased education would address more immediate water needs. It would also buy some time to address water insecurity more broadly long-term and increase understanding concerning future climate impacts and political stability. Direct rainwater harvesting would allow for community sharing programs, combating the problem at two critical levels, if excess water were put in community reserves to be distributed to households in need and during drought events.

One key component for success will be how such technologies are implemented at both the individual and community levels, and the corresponding relationship between the various groups involved. Trust-building and inclusion are essential, particularly the inclusion of Ugandan women as the primary adopters. Women are often left out of technology and infrastructure discussions, often leading to failed programs. Empowering Ugandan women with the knowledge and inclusion needed to be part of the solution will help ensure a more stable foundation, sustained adoption, and help to combat depression at the same time.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOME:

Rainwater harvesting would alleviate some immediate water needs and contribute to community-level sharing programs if households with excess water contribute to community stores. Regardless of future political unrest, addressing water insecurity through household and community-level programs would help promote self-sufficiency during whatever troubled times might come. It would soften the blow of climate change by building a foundation more ready to face future flooding and drought through shared water reserves. It would also promote a heightened sense of security within communities and individuals alike.

CONCLUSION:

Water insecurity is a problem in Uganda, but particularly for Ugandan women. As the responsible gender for water-related needs, they feel the burden most heavily. While there are significant challenges to addressing water security at state, community, and household levels, empowering women at the household level will strengthen the household, the community, and the state to better face future water uncertainties. Direct rainwater harvesting programs at the household level combined with the inclusion and training of women would empower women to be part of the solution, decrease depression in women, and allow for shared community water reserved during times of excess precipitation. However, trust-building will be a major factor in the adoption and success of any program.

References:

Cooper-Vince CE, Arachy H, Kakuhikire B, et al. 2018. “Water insecurity and gendered risk for depression in rural Uganda: a hotspot analysis.” BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):1143. Published 2018 Sep 26. doi:10.1186/s12889-018-6043-z. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6158871/. Accessed August 16, 2020. 

Gleick, Peter and Charles Iceland. 2018. “Water, Security and Conflict.” World Resources Institute. Issue Brief. August 2018. https://www.wri.org/publication/water-security-and-conflict. Accessed August 16, 2020. 

McDonnell, Tim. 2019. “Report: There’s A Growing Water Crisis In The Global South” Houston Public Media. NPR. Goats and Soda. https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/08/13/750777462/report-theres-a-growing-water-crisis-in-the-global-south. Accessed August 16, 2020.  

Runde, Daniel, F. 2018. “Can the United States Prevent Uganda from Reaching a Breaking Point?.” Center for Strategic and International Studies https://www.csis.org/analysis/can-united-states-prevent-uganda-reaching-breaking-point?amp. Accessed August 16, 2020.

Staddon, Chad, Josh Rogers, Calum Warriner, Sarah Ward, and Wayne Powell. 2018. “Why Doesn’t Every Family Practice Rainwater Harvesting? Factors That Affect the Decision to Adopt Rainwater Harvesting as a Household Water Security Strategy in Central Uganda.” Water International: The Global Water Security Challenge 43, no. 8 (November 17, 2018): 1114–1135.

Tsai, Alexander C, Bernard Kakuhikire, Rumbidzai Mushavi, et al. 2016. “Population-Based Study of Intra-Household Gender Differences in Water Insecurity: Reliability and Validity of a Survey Instrument for Use in Rural Uganda.” Journal of water and health 14, no. 2 (April 2016): 280–292.

“Uganda’s Water Crisis – Water in Uganda 2020.” 2020. Water.org.  https://water.org/our-impact/where-we-work/uganda/. Accessed August 16, 2020.  

Web, Patrick. 2006. “Water and Food Insecurity in Developing Countries: Major Challenges for the 21st Century.” In Water, 31–52. CRC Press, 2006.

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